Portrait from the Uffizi Gallery, in Florence
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
On February 24, 1463, Giovanni Pico dei conti della Mirandola e della Concordia, also known as Pico della Mirandola, a prominent Italian Renaissance nobleman and philosopher, made history at the age of 23. It was in 1486 when he astounded many by offering to defend 900 theses covering religion, philosophy, natural philosophy, and magic. This event led him to compose the renowned Oration on the Dignity of Man, often hailed as the "Manifesto of the Renaissance." Pico's oration holds a significant place in the annals of Renaissance humanism and the "Hermetic Reformation." Notably, he is credited with founding the tradition of Christian Kabbalah, a pivotal aspect of early modern Western esotericism. The Church universally banned his 900 Theses upon its printing, leading some to regard Pico as a precursor to the Protestant movement due to the resemblance of his theses to certain Protestant perspectives.
Giovanni was born at Mirandola, near Modena, the youngest son of Gianfrancesco I Pico, Lord of Mirandola and Count of Concordia, by his wife Giulia, daughter of Feltrino Boiardo, Count of Scandiano. The family had a long history in the Castle of Mirandola, which gained independence in the fourteenth century and was granted the fief of Concordia in 1414 by the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. Mirandola, positioned in Emilia near Ferrara, was a small autonomous county that later evolved into a duchy. The Pico della Mirandola family was closely connected to the Sforza, Gonzaga, and Este dynasties. Furthermore, Giovanni's siblings married into the descendants of the hereditary rulers of Corsica, Ferrara, Bologna, and Forlì, forging strong ties across the region.
Born twenty-three years into his parents' marriage, Giovanni had two much older brothers, both of whom outlived him: Count Galeotto I continued the dynasty, while Antonio became a general in the Imperial army. The Pico family would reign as dukes until Mirandola, an ally of Louis XIV of France, was conquered by his rival, Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1708 and annexed to Modena by Duke Rinaldo d'Este. Subsequently, the exiled male line of the family became extinct in 1747.
Giovanni's maternal family was renowned for their exceptional contributions in the arts and scholarship during the Italian Renaissance. His cousin and contemporary, the poet Matteo Maria Boiardo, was deeply influenced by their uncle, Tito Vespasiano Strozzi, a prominent Florentine patron of the arts and a scholar-poet.
Giovanni had a complex and contradictory relationship with his nephew Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola. Despite being a fervent admirer of his uncle, Gianfrancesco published Examen vanitatis doctrinae gentium (1520) in direct opposition to Giovanni's "ancient wisdom narrative," as noted by historian Charles B. Schmitt. Schmitt described this act as Gianfrancesco's deliberate attempt to undermine the intellectual legacy painstakingly constructed by his uncle.
A remarkably gifted and quick-witted young boy, Giovanni displayed an extraordinary talent for retaining knowledge and was immersed in the teachings of Latin and quite likely Greek from his tender years. His mother, foreseeing a path for him within the Church, orchestrated his appointment as a papal protonotary at the remarkable age of 10. Subsequently, in 1477, he journeyed to Bologna with the purpose of delving into the intricacies of canon law, marking the dawn of his scholarly pursuits in this field.
Following the sudden demise of his mother three years later, Pico made the bold decision to forego his pursuit of canon law and instead immersed himself in the study of philosophy at the esteemed University of Ferrara. A fortuitous sojourn to Florence introduced him to the likes of Angelo Poliziano, the elegant poet Girolamo Benivieni, and quite possibly the youthful Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola, all of whom would become lifelong confidants. It is rumored that he also enjoyed a romantic entanglement with Poliziano, further adding to the intriguing tapestry of his life.
From 1480 to 1482, he dedicated himself to furthering his education at the distinguished University of Padua, renowned for its promotion of Aristotelian philosophy in Italy. In addition to his already proficient command of Latin and Greek, he undertook the study of Hebrew and Arabic under the guidance of Elia del Medigo. Del Medigo not only aided Pico in the translation of Judaic manuscripts from Hebrew to Latin but also provided valuable insight into Aramaic texts. It's worth noting that the influence of Savonarola led Pico to compose sonnets in both Latin and Italian, which he ultimately chose to obliterate at the culmination of his life.
In the following four years, he dedicated his time to either staying at home or exploring humanist centers in various parts of Italy. By 1485, he embarked on a journey to the University of Paris, renowned as the pivotal hub in Europe for scholastic philosophy and theology, as well as a thriving environment for secular Averroism. It is likely that it was during his time in Paris that Giovanni initiated his 900 Theses and formulated the notion of advocating them through public debates.
In the year 1494, just at the age of 31, Pico met his end under mysterious circumstances, coinciding with the untimely passing of his friend Poliziano. There were whispers and rumors, suggesting that Pico's own secretary might have been involved in his demise, supposedly due to Pico's growing proximity to Savonarola. Following his death, Pico was laid to rest alongside Girolamo Benivieni at San Marco, presided over by Savonarola, who delivered the funeral oration.
Ficino wrote:
Our dear Pico left us on the same day that Charles VIII was entering Florence, and the tears of men of letters compensated for the joy of the people. Without the light brought by the king of France, Florence might perhaps have never seen a more somber day than that which extinguished Mirandola's light.
In 2007, a significant event unfolded in Florence when the remains of Poliziano and Pico were unearthed from the hallowed grounds of the Church of San Marco. The purpose behind this act was to delve into the mysteries shrouding their untimely demises. The compelling results of thorough forensic examinations unveiled a distressing truth - both luminaries had likely succumbed to the insidious effects of arsenic poisoning. What further compounded the tragedy was the looming suspicion that this nefarious deed might have been orchestrated under the auspices of Lorenzo's heir, Piero de' Medici.
Castle of Mirandola in 1976
The Childhood of Pico della Mirandola by Hippolyte Delaroche, 1842, Musée d'Arts de Nantes
Giovanni’s 900 Theses
THE CONCLUSIONS will not be disputed until after the Epiphany. In the meantime they will be published in all Italian universities. And if any philosopher or theologian, even from the ends of Italy, wishes to come to Rome for the sake of debating, his lord the disputer promises to pay the travel expenses from his own funds.
— Announcement at the end of the 900 Theses
During this transformative period, Pico experienced two pivotal events that would shape the course of his life. The first of these occurred when he made his way back to Florence in November 1484 and encountered the influential figures of Lorenzo de' Medici and Marsilio Ficino. It happened to be an astrologically significant day, selected by Ficino for the unveiling of his translations of Plato's works from Greek to Latin, all of which was generously backed by Lorenzo. Pico's undeniable charm captivated both men, and despite differing philosophical leanings, Ficino was swayed by their shared Saturnine connection and perceived divine intervention in Pico's arrival. From that day onwards, Lorenzo became Pico's unwavering supporter and protector, a bond that endured until Lorenzo's passing in 1492.
Soon after this stay in Florence, Pico was travelling on his way to Rome where he intended to publish his 900 Theses and prepare for a congress of scholars from all over Europe to debate them. Stopping in Arezzo he became involved in a love affair with the wife of one of Lorenzo de' Medici's cousins, which almost cost him his life. Giovanni attempted to run off with the woman, but he was caught, wounded and thrown into prison by her husband. He was released only upon the intervention of Lorenzo himself.
Pico spent several enlightening months in Perugia and nearby Fratta, allowing his wounds to heal and his mind to wander. During this time, he came across a collection of intriguing Chaldean books, including works of Esdras, Zoroaster, and Melchior. These texts, regarded as oracles of the magi, revealed to Pico a concise yet enigmatic interpretation of Chaldean philosophy. Moreover, his fascination with the mystical Hebrew Kabbalah and the late classical Hermetic writers was piqued, as they were believed to be as ancient as the Old Testament in Pico's era. Under the guidance of Rabbi Johannan Alemanno, Pico delved into the study of Kabbalah, where he discovered Alemanno's compelling argument that the mastery of magic was the ultimate stage of one's intellectual and spiritual education.
This interaction, stemming from Christian curiosity about delving into the ancient teachings present in Jewish mystical texts, led to an unparalleled exchange of ideas between Jewish and Christian Renaissance ideologies. Among Pico's 900 theses, his most distinctive contributions revolved around the Kabbalah, establishing him as the progenitor of Christian Kabbalah, a significant component of early modern Western esoteric thought. Pico's method of navigating various philosophies was deeply syncretic, leading him to align them in a parallel manner, rather than seeking to delineate a linear developmental progression.
Pico's Influence and Beliefs
Giovanni drew inspiration primarily from Plato, echoing his mentor Marsilio Ficino's reverence for the philosopher. Nonetheless, Pico's inclination towards eclecticism and his profound respect for Aristotle set him apart. Demonstrating a balanced approach, he sought to counteract the extremes of pure humanism while advocating for the merits of medieval and Islamic scholars like Averroes and Avicenna. In a notable communication to Ermolao Barbaro, Pico endeavored to harmonize the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, viewing them as conveying identical notions through different terminology. Consequently, he earned the moniker "Princeps Concordiae," denoting the "Prince of Harmony" due to his pursuit of reconciling differing philosophical schools. Furthermore, Pico emphasized the importance of studying Hebrew, Talmudic sources, and Hermeticism alongside conventional teachings, perceiving them as alternate but coherent expressions of the divine as encapsulated in the Old Testament.
He completed his "Oration on the Dignity of Man" to complement his 900 Theses and journeyed to Rome to advance his endeavor of defending them. In December 1486, he consolidated them into a publication entitled "Conclusiones philosophicae, cabalasticae et theologicae" and extended an offer to cover the expenses of any scholars who ventured to Rome to engage in public debates over them. Eager for the discourse to commence on the feast of Epiphany on 6 January, a date symbolizing the submission of pagan gentes to Christ, Pico aimed for a victory that would signify not only the symbolic acceptance of the pagan sages, but also the conversion of Jews upon recognizing Jesus as the true secret of their traditions. Historian Steven Farmer suggests that Pico may have anticipated a climactic end to the Vatican debate, akin to the dramatic entrance of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse through the Roman skies.
In February 1487, Pope Innocent VIII put a stop to the proposed debate and set up a commission to thoroughly review the orthodoxy of the 900 Theses. Despite Pico addressing the accusations against them, thirteen theses were deemed unacceptable. Pico did consent in writing to retract them, but staunchly maintained their validity. In the end, all 900 theses faced condemnation. Undeterred, Pico penned an apologia defending them - the Apologia J. Pici Mirandolani, Concordiae comitis - and had it published in 1489, dedicating it to his patron, Lorenzo. When the pope learned of the dissemination of this manuscript, he convened an inquisitorial tribunal, compelling Pico to disavow the Apologia and his condemned theses, to which Pico reluctantly acceded. The pope censured 900 Theses as:
In part heretical, in part the flower of heresy; several are scandalous and offensive to pious ears; most do nothing but reproduce the errors of pagan philosophers [...] others are capable of inflaming the impertinence of the Jews; a number of them, finally, under the pretext of 'natural philosophy', favour arts [i.e., magic] that are enemies to the Catholic faith and to the human race.
This marked a significant turning point as it was unprecedented for the Church to impose a ban on a printed book, leading to the widespread destruction of nearly all existing copies. Fleeing to France in 1488, Pico faced further turmoil as he was apprehended by Philip II, Duke of Savoy, under the insistence of the papal envoys, resulting in his imprisonment at Vincennes. It was only through the intervention of various Italian nobles, orchestrated by Lorenzo de' Medici, that King Charles VIII secured Pico's release. Despite being granted refuge in Florence under Lorenzo's safeguard, Pico remained under the shadow of papal condemnation and limitations until 1493, when the papacy passed into the hands of Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia).
The experience deeply shook Pico to his core, leaving an indelible mark on his soul. Despite the upheaval, he found solace in reconciling with Savonarola, a dear and steadfast companion. Pico's unwavering syncretist beliefs remained unaltered, even as he played a pivotal role in bringing Savonarola to Florence at the behest of Lorenzo. Settling in a serene villa near Fiesole, a sanctuary thoughtfully arranged by Lorenzo, Pico devoted himself to profound literary endeavors. Among his notable creations were the Heptaplus id est de Dei creatoris opere (1489) and De Ente et Uno (Of Being and Unity, 1491). Notably, he penned the powerful Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinicatrium (Treatise Against Predictive Astrology), a scathing denouncement of the deterministic practices prevalent among astrologers in his era, a work that would only be unveiled posthumously.
After the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492, Pico moved to Ferrara, although he continued to visit Florence frequently. Due to political instability in the city, the influence of Savonarola was on the rise. Savonarola opposed the expansion and style of the Renaissance, which had already caused conflicts with the Medici family, resulting in their expulsion from Florence and extensive destruction of books and paintings. Despite this, Pico became a devout follower of Savonarola. He was determined to become a monk, which led him to dismiss his previous interests in Egyptian and Chaldean texts, destroy his own poetry, and give away his entire fortune.
Writings
In the Oratio de hominis dignitate (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), Pico justified the importance of the human quest for knowledge within a Neoplatonic framework.
Beginning of Oration on the Dignity of Man:
“I once read that Abdala the Muslim, when asked what was most worthy of awe and wonder in this theater of the world, answered, “There is nothing to see more wonderful than man!” Hermes Trismegistus concurs with this opinion: “A great miracle, Asclepius, is man!” However, when I began to consider the reasons for these opinions, all these reasons given for the magnificence of human nature failed to convince me: that man is the intermediary between creatures, close to the gods, master of all the lower creatures, with the sharpness of his senses, the acuity of his reason, and the brilliance of his intelligence the interpreter of nature, the nodal point between eternity and time, and, as the Persians say, the intimate bond or marriage song of the world, just a little lower than angels as David tells us.2 I concede these are magnificent reasons, but they do not seem to go to the heart of the matter, that is, those reasons which truly claim admiration. For, if these are all the reasons we can come up with, why should we not admire angels more than we do ourselves? After thinking a long time, I have figured out why man is the most fortunate of all creatures and as a result worthy of the highest admiration and earning his rank on the chain of being, a rank to be envied not merely by the beasts but by the stars themselves and by the spiritual natures beyond and above this world. This miracle goes past faith and wonder. And why not? It is for this reason that man is rightfully named a magnificent miracle and a wondrous creation.”
The Oration not only acted as an introduction to Pico's 900 theses, but it also laid the foundation for what he considered a comprehensive framework for the pursuit of knowledge. Pico viewed these theses as a blueprint for humanity's progression up the hierarchy of existence. His 900 Theses served as a prime illustration of humanist syncretism, as they amalgamated various philosophical and mystical traditions such as Platonism, Neoplatonism, Aristotelianism, Hermeticism, and Kabbalah. Furthermore, they encompassed 72 theses outlining Pico's comprehensive system of physics.
Pico's De animae immortalitate (Paris, 1541), and other works, elaborated on the doctrine that man's possession of an immortal soul emancipated him from hierarchical stasis. Pico advocated for universal reconciliation, asserting in one of his 900 theses that "A mortal sin of finite duration is not deserving of eternal but only of temporal punishment." This particular thesis was deemed heretical by Pope Innocent VIII in his bull of 4 August 1487.
In the Oration, the author presents a compelling argument articulated by Pier Cesare Bori, asserting that the human vocation embodies a mystical essence that unfolds through a three-stage path. This path intrinsically encompasses moral metamorphosis, intellectual exploration, and ultimate attunement with the absolute reality. The author further posits the universality of this paradigm, contending that it resonates within every tradition, thereby transcending cultural and ideological boundaries.
A significant part of his Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem was posthumously published in Bologna. Pico's compelling arguments opposing astrology have resonated for centuries, impacting even contemporary debates. The influence of Augustine of Hippo's anti-astrology stance is evident in Disputationes, as is the impact of the medieval philosophical tale Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān by ibn Tufail, which advocated for autodidacticism as a philosophical pursuit.
Pico's strong opposition to astrology appears to originate primarily from the clash between astrology and Christian beliefs in free will. However, Pico's reasoning went beyond Ficino's objections, despite Ficino being an astrologer himself. After Pico's passing, his nephew Giovanni Francesco Pico della Mirandola, a devoted advocate of Savonarola, edited the manuscript for posthumous publication. This posthumous editing may have intensified its critical stance, possibly shedding light on Ficino's fervent support for the manuscript prior to its release.
Early in his career, Pico wrote a Commento sopra una canzone d'amore di Girolamo Benivieni, in which he revealed his plan to write a book entitled Poetica Theologia:
It was the opinion of the ancient theologians that divine subjects and the secret Mysteries must not be rashly divulged... the Egyptians had sculpted sphinxes in all their temples, for no other reason than to indicate that divine things, even when they are committed to writing, must be covered with enigmatic veils and poetic dissimulation... How that was done... by Latin and Greek poets we shall explain in the book of our Poetic Theology.
— Commento, Libro Terzo, Cap. xi, Stanza Nona
Pico's Heptaplus, a mystical-allegorical exposition of the creation according to the seven Biblical senses, elaborates on his idea that different religions and traditions describe the same God. The book is written in his characteristic apologetic and polemic style:
If they agree with us anywhere, we shall order the Hebrews to stand by the ancient traditions of their fathers; if anywhere they disagree, then drawn up in Catholic legions we shall make an attack upon them. In short, whatever we detect foreign to the truth of the Gospels we shall refute to the extent of our power, while whatever we find holy and true we shall bear off from the synagogue, as from a wrongful possessor, to ourselves, the legitimate Israelites.
— Heptaplus, Proem to 3rd exposition
On Being and the One (Latin: De ente et uno) has explanations of several passages in the Pentateuch, Plato and Aristotle. It is an attempted reconciliation between Platonic and Aristotelian writings on the relative places of being and "the one" and a refutation of opposing arguments.
He wrote in Italian an imitation of Plato's Symposium. His letters (Aureae ad familiares epistolae Paris, 1499) are important for the history of contemporary thought. The many editions of his entire works in the sixteenth century sufficiently prove his influence.
Another notorious text by Pico is De omnibus rebus et de quibusdam aliis ("Of all things that exist and a little more"), which is mentioned in some entries on Thomas More's Utopia and makes fun of the title of Lucretius' De rerum natura.
The Mirandola Mint
The Mirandola Mint, also known as the mint of the Pico della Mirandola, was the mint of the Duchy of Mirandola.
The activity of the mint, which minted over 500 types of coins, began in Mirandola in 1515 and ended with the exile of the Pico family from the Duchy of Mirandola in the early 18th century, after the return of the imperials following the French siege of Mirandola in 1705.
The royal coins collection of King Vittorio Emanuele III, now housed in the National Roman Museum in Rome, and the collection in the Civic Museum of Mirandola are the largest collections of coins minted in the ancient State of Mirandola.